Second Language Aquisition free essay sample

Language Acquisition What is Second Language Acquisition? In second language learning, language plays an institutional and social role in the community. It functions as a recognized means of communication among members who speak some other language as their native tongue. In foreign language learning, language plays no major role in the community and is primarily learned in the classroom. The distinction between second and foreign language learning is what is learned and how it is learned. Slide 2: Learning a second language requires: 1. formal language instruction in an academic setting; 2. nteractions with the second language outside of the classroom; 3. pedagogical practices, strategies and methodologies which facilitate second language learning (how); and 4. teaching the four language skills: listening, speaking, reading, writing along with comprehension and thinking (what). Slide 3: The study of second language acquisition involves: 1. how second languages are learned ( the proc ess); 2. how learners create a new language system with limited exposure (interactions); 3. language proficiency levels (competence and performance of the language); and 4. hy some learners achieve native-like proficiency. How Do Learners Acquire a Second Language? Learners acquire a second language by making use of existing knowledge of the native language, general learning strategies, or universal properties of language to internalize knowledge of the second language. These processes serve as a means by which the learner constructs an interlanguage (a transitional system reflecting the learner’s current L2 knowledge). Communication strategies are employed by the learner to make use of existing knowledge to cope with communication difficulties. Slide 4: Learners acquire a second language by drawing on their background experiences and prior knowledge in their first language. They experiment with the second language by using features found in their first language which are similar to those in the second language. This dependence on the first language serves to help the learner construct an interlanguage, a transitional system consisting of the learner’s current second language knowledge. Communication strategies help the learners use what they already know to overcome breakdowns in communication. Slide 5: Individual differences affect second language acquisition. These differences may be developmental, cognitive, affective or social. There are factors that are fixed which we cannot control such as age and language learning aptitude. There are some variable factors such as motivation which are controlled by social setting and the course taken for developing the second language. Teachers need to know that variable factors are controlled through the learning environment, by knowing their students’ cognitive styles, their learning preferences, how they teach, and what they teach. Slide 6: There are many different types of learner strategies which teachers need to be aware of in order to understand the strategies children bring with them and how they learn best. Language learners may need to be taught strategies for relating new knowledge to prior knowledge, for organizing information more effectively and for seeking opportunities for communicating with target language speakers. Slide 7: Researchers identified a natural order of strategies for developing a second language. The order of development starts with the very simple imitation of a word or language structure, to self-talk, to self-correcting, and to role-playing. An awareness of this natural order can help teachers of second language learners plan lessons to facilitate language learning and increase the learners’ self-esteem and self-confidence. Slide 8: There are several theories of second language acquisition which have provided information on how second languages are learned. The Universalists studied a wide-range of languages to find out how languages vary and what makes them vary. They looked at language patterns, language universals (features of language which are common across many languages) as well as other properties of language. Slide 9: Universalists also claimed that language is acquired through innateness (nature) and that certain conditions trigger the development of language (nurture). The search for meaning is innate. Activities and instructional materials need to be presented in a meaningful, relevant and interesting manner in order to allow students to make language learning connections. Slide 10: Behaviorists claimed that learners learn by undergoing training and practice through a series of stimulus and response chains and operant conditioning. The environment provides the stimulus and the learner provides the response. According to the Behaviorist theory, reinforcement motivates the formation of a language habit. Behaviorist Theory (Continued) Theory When the learner learns a language, this learning includes a set of stimulusresponse-reward (S-R-R) chains. Imitation provides the learner with a repertoire of appropriate, productive responses. The learner learns to imitate or approximate the productive responses provided by the environment. The characteristics of human and non-human learners include the ability to: 1. 2. 3. 4. respond to stimuli in a certain way; intuitively evaluate the reward potential of responses; extract the important parameters that made up the stimulus response (positive reward chains); and generalize these parameters to similar situations to form classes of S-R-R chains. Slide 11: Language learning requires effort and practice. Behaviorists further claimed that learners imitate or approximate productive responses. For instance, learning how to write is not universal across cultures because some cultures do not have a history of written language, therefore learning how to write involves a conscious effort and specific training, as well as a willingness to learn by trial and error. Responding to stimuli in this instance is critical in order for writing to take place. Slide 12: Nativists claimed that language learning is biologically determined. Each person is born with an innate ability to learn language. The basic innate language learning capacities are referred to as the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). This view asserts that the environment only serves to trigger the Language Acquisition Device (LAD) which determines what children acquire. Children acquire much of their language ability before coming to school, thus supporting the innate structures argument. Nativist Theory (Continued) 1. 2. 3. the ability to distinguish speech sounds from other sounds in the environment; Theory McNeill (1966) described the LAD as consisting of four innate linguistic properties: the ability to organize linguistic events into various classes that can be refined later; knowledge that only a certain kind of linguistic system is possible and that other kinds are not; and the ability to engage in constant evaluation of the developing linguistic system in order to construct the simplest possible system out of the linguistic data that are encountered. 4. Nativists have contributed to the discoveries of how the system of child language works. Theorists such as Chomsky, McNeill, and others helped us understand that a child’s language, at any given point, is a legitimate system in its own right. Slide 13: The Nativists also contend that learners actively construct grammar for themselves by actively listening to the language around them and trying to determine the patterns in the utterances. Learners progress through language in predictable stages. The learner will not respond to error correction if he/she is not developmentally ready. Slide 14: Cognitivists claimed that the conditions for learning language are the same conditions that are necessary for any kind of learning. They believed that human beings have the capacity for developing logical thinking. Acquiring knowledge is a cognitive process which involves automatic processing (rountinzed) and controlled (temporary) learning. Cognitivist Theory (Continued) Language Learning as a Cognitive Process 1. 2. Theory Learning a language involves internal representations that regulate and guide performance. Automatic processing activates certain nodes in memory when appropriate input is present. Activation is a learned response. Memory is a large collection of nodes. Controlled processing is not a learned response. It is a temporary activation of nodes in a sequence. Skills are learned and routinized only after the earlier use of controlled processes have been used. Learner strategies contain both declarative knowledge i. e. knowing the ‘what’ of the language-internalized rules and memorized chunks of language, and procedural knowledge i. e. know the ‘how’ of the language system to employ strategies. 3. 4. 5. 6. Slide 15: The Cognitive theory underscores the fact that the learner brings an innate mental capacity to the learning task. He/she also brings perceptions of relationships between what he knows and what he/she needs to know. Learner strategies are used for learning the rules of a language and how to use the language for different audiences and purposes. Theories of Second Language Acquisition (Continued Social Interactionist Theory supports the view that the development of language comes from the early interactions between infants and caregivers. Social interactionists stress: Theory the importance of a child’s interactions with parents and other caregivers; the importance of â€Å"motherese†; contributions of context and world knowledge; and the importance of goals Glew (1998) claims that learners have to be pushed in their negotiation of meaning to produce comprehensible output. The classroom context needs to provide adequate opportunities for target language use to allow learners to develop competence in the target language. Slide 16: Social interactionists believe that human language emerged from the social role that language plays in human interactions. They further believed that the environment plays a key role and that adults in the child’s linguistic environment are instrumental in language acquisition. Language learners need many opportunities for using the target language in order to develop competence. Slide 17: Social interaction is the key to language processing. Input from the social interactions provides a model for negotiation opportunities. Vygotsky (1978) believed that learners bring two levels of development to the learning: an actual developmental level and a potential developmental level. These two levels are referred to as the Zone of Proximal Development. Learners can move from actual development to proximal development through social interactions with others. Slide 18: Krashen proposed five hypotheses for second language acquisition. He explored the notion that acquisition is different from learning because one takes place in a natural environment while the other takes place in an academic setting. He further claimed that we learn language in a predictable order. Some language structures are learned earlier than others. The monitor is the self-correcting mechanism that learners use to edit what they say before they speak or write. The learner can overuse the monitor and stifle communication. Slide 19: Krashen proposed that when learners are provided with comprehensible input they acquire more. When the learner’s affective filter is up, this means that information is not reaching the learner. This may be because of fear, anxiety or low selfconfidence in language learning. The ideal situation is for the filter to be down so that the language acquisition device can receive the input necessary for language acquisition. Cummin’s Second Language Framework Cummins makes a distinction between social language and academic language. 1. Social language refers to the everyday conversational language which is supported by the use of illustrations, realia, demonstrations, etc. Context Embedded). Studies show that language learners acquire social language in approximately two years. Social language deals with the here-and-now language, therefore second language learners tend to acquire it faster. 2. Academic language is the language of school tasks which is more abstract and decontextualized (Context Reduced). Some second language learners who develop fluent spoken English have difficulties in reading and writing because they may be at different levels of proficiency while they are moving from social language (BICS) to academic language (CALP). It takes between five to seven years for second language learners to acquire academic language. Slide 20: James Cummins developed a framework for second language acquisition that involves the identification of both social and academic languages. The basic interpersonal communication skills are acquired from everyday use of the language and are supported by cues in the environment (context-embedded). The cognitive academic language proficiency is more abstract language which is not supported by environmental cues (context-reduced). Slides 21-22: Context-embedded tasks are for the most part cognitively undemanding because learners are able to depend on cues for assistance. There are some tasks that are context-embedded, more complex and impose cognitive demands. The learners in these situations can still rely on environmental cues for help. Slides 23-24: Context-reduced tasks can be both cognitively undemanding and cognitively demanding as well. Cognitively undemanding tasks are simple to carry out but do not contain environmental cues i. e. reading for personal purposes. Cognitively demanding, context-reduced tasks are more abstract and decontextualized. Slides 25-26: The components of communicative competence include: 1) grammatical competence which is knowing the structure of the language; 2) sociolinguistic competence which involves the use of the language for different audiences, purposes and norms of communication; 3) discourse competence which includes combing and connecting utterances both spoken and written; and 4) strategic competence which involves using language to meet communication goals. Slide 27: Competence is the underlying knowledge which is the mental representation of linguistic rules. This knowledge is nonobservable because it is internal. Performance is the overtly observable production of competence (comprehension and production of language). Slide 28: The three general principles of language learning include: 1) the law of exercise-active and repeated responses to stimuli (practice); 2) the law of effect-reinforcing learner responses (providing immediate corrective feedback); and 3) the principle of shaping-learning language through learning chunks (bit-bybit). Slide 29: These principles operate under the assumption that language learning is the formation of habit. The learner’s automatic responses were prompted by stimuli. Interesting and motivating stimuli turns responses into automatic, routinized learning. The level of difficulty required to learn a second language depends on the amount of time it takes to learn a second language pattern. The time from which controlled responses (short-term) turn into automatic responses (long-term) is dependent on learner differences, learning conditions, and teaching pedagogy. Input and Interaction L2 acquisition can only take place when the learner has access to input in the second language. This input may come in written or spoken form. Spoken input occurs in face-to-face interactions. Non-reciprocal discourse includes listening to the radio or watching a film. Behaviorists claim that presenting learners with input in the right doses and then reinforcing their attempts to practice them can control the process of acquisition. Chomsky pointed out that in many cases there was a very poor match between the kind of language found in the input that learners received and the kind of language they themselves produced. Comprehensible input (Krashen’s, 1985 Input Hypothesis) proposed that learners acquire morphological features in a natural order as a result of comprehending input addressed to them. Long (1981a) argued that input which is made comprehensible by means of the conversational adjustments that occur when there is a comprehension problem is especially important for acquisition. Swain (1985) proposed the comprehensible output hypothesis which states that learners need opportunities for â€Å"pushed output† in speech or writing that makes demands on them for correct and appropriate use of the L2. Slide 30: Input and interaction are very important factors in second language acquisition. Second language acquisition can only take place when the learner has access to input in the target language. Teachers can provide comprehensible input in their instructional delivery coupled with opportunities for interactions. Adjustments are made in order to facilitate the comprehension of messages. Just as important is comprehensible output. Learners need to be given opportunities to produce spoken or written discourse which forces them to use correct and appropriate use of the second language. The Role of the Native Language in Second Language Acquisition Language Trans fer The role of native language in second language acquisition has come to be known as â€Å"language transfer. † It has been assumed that in a second language learning situation learners rely extensively on their native language. According to Lado (1957) individuals tend to transfer forms and meanings, the distribution of the forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and culture. This transfer is productive when the learner attempts to speak the language. This transfer is receptive when the learner attempts to grasp and understand the language and culture as practiced by native speakers. Lado’s work and much of the work of that time (1950’s) was based on the need to produce pedagogically relevant materials. A contrastive analysis of the native language and the target language was conducted in order to determine similarities and differences in the languages. Slide 31: The first language has a distinct role in second language acquisition. When language learners have a strong linguistic and communicative foundation in their native language, then the process of second language acquisition involves language transfer. Learners transfer forms and meanings as they attempt to speak or write the second language. Transfer takes on a receptive role when the learners listen to native speakers of the language and try to understand what is being said. Similarities in the two languages are transferred positively (language facilitation), while differences cause a nonproductive transfer (language interference). Framework for Explaining L1 Transfer Language Trans fer The L1 system is used for both comprehension and production. The interlanguage system is also used in comprehending and receiving messages. The L1 system is used in hypothesis construction responsible for interlanguage development. Comprehensible input serves as a major source of information for hypothesis construction. L2 output may be used for hypothesis construction. Slide 32: Language learners rely on their first language to produce language and to comprehend it. Hypotheses construction of language comes when learners manipulate and test language forms to further their interlanguage, the stages of development between L1 and L2. The second language output helps the learner test hypotheses of how language works and helps them construct new ones. Teachers provide comprehensible input in order to help learners acquire information for hypotheses construction. Slide 33: Language transfer is a cognitive process which involves the strategic use of the first language in learning the second language. The flexible thinking that occurs in the learner’s mind is representative of the interconnectedness between the two languages. Bi-cognitive thinking occurs spontaneously and with great ease. Learners think in their first language, transfer that thinking into the second language and then produce the utterances that meet the communication situation. There is a distinction between transfer experienced for communication purposes and transfer experienced for second language learning. First language transfer helps the learner receive and produce messages for communication purposes. Transfer in learning situations happens when the learner uses the first language to formulate hypotheses about second language rules. Language Language Transfer Trans fer Where the two languages were identical, learning could take place through positive transfer to the native-language pattern. Where the two languages were different, learning difficulty arose and errors occurred resulting from negative transfer. Chomsky (1959) set in motion a re-evaluation of many of the behaviorists claims. This re-evaluation included area such as: the dangers of extrapolating from laboratory studies of animal behavior to the language behavior of humans were pointed out; 2. the terms stimulus and response were exposed as vacuous where language behavior was concerned; 3. nalogy could not account for the language user’s ability to generate totally novel utterances; and 4. studies of children acquiring their L1 showed that parents rarely corrected their children’s linguistic errors, thus casting doubt on the importance of reinforcement in language learning. All this led to the reconsideration of the role of L1 in L2 learning. 1. Slide 34: When language feat ures in the two languages are similar, positive transfer from the first language to the second language occurs. When language features in the two languages are different, learning difficulties and errors happen. This transfer process made it evident to researchers that the native language definitely plays a major role in second language acquisition. The Nature of the Interlanguage Continuum Cognitive theories of interlanguage claim that with the assistance of learning strategies, learners build mental grammars of the second language. Learners draw on the rules they have constructed to interpret and produce utterances. Learner’s utterances are only erroneous with reference to the target language norms, not to the norms of their own grammars. The interlanguage continuum consists of a series of overlapping grammars. Each share some rules with the previously constructed grammar, but also contains some new or revised rules. A rule has the status of a hypothesis. Slide 35: The implication of the interlanguage continuum for teachers is that with assistance from learning strategies, learners are able to build mental grammars (rules) of the second language. The continuum represents different interlanguage stages (overlapping grammars) that the learners go through to use the rules they have learned to interpret and produce speech. Rules are classified hypotheses because the learner tests certain language rules in his/her development. Selinker’s Interlanguage Theory Selinker’s Interlanguage Theory maintains the separateness of a second language learner’s system and gives the system a structurally intermediate status between the native and target languages. According to Selinker, second language learners are producing their own self-contained linguistic system. The system is not a native language or target language system, rather it falls between the two. Stages of Interlanguage Development include: 1) random errors (presystematic); 2) experimentation and inaccurate guessing; 3) emergent-growing in consistency in linguistic production; 4) backsliding-appears to have grasped but later regressed and unable to correct errors; 5) systematic stage-ability to correct errors on their own; rules may not be well-formed but display more internal self-consistency; 6) stabilization-few errors are made, have mastered the system to the point of fluency; and 7) intralingual-inconsistencies within the target language; Global errors-affect meaning;local errors-close similarities in word form (i. . spelling). Interlanguage Continuum Interlanguage Stages L1 L2 ______/____/______/____/_______/_____/___/_____/_____/______ Basilang Mesolang Acrolang Slide 36: Each of the stages of the interlanguage continuum represents each grammar that the learner builds which represents more complexity as he/she moves on the continuum. Second language learners begin in t heir first language and as teachers provide the formal and informal second language instruction, learners move forward in their development. When learners encounter difficulties in any of their interlanguage stages, they can fossilize (learning stops at some given point) or they may experience backsliding (regression). The continuum can be related to language learner categories used for identifying bilingual/ESL students. Basilang is equivalent to the beginner; mesolang is the category of an intermediate learner; and acrolang is the category for the advanced learner. Slide 37: The identification of errors that language learners make is important in order to understand the source of errors and the corrective measures teachers can offer. Errors happen when learners lack knowledge of second language rules, while mistakes occur when learners are unable to perform their competence (underlying knowledge that is non-observable). Overt errors are deviations in form and covert errors are those that are well-formed but do not communicate what the learner intended. Learner Errors Error Analysis is used for examining errors as a way of investigating learning processes. Much of the early work on learner errors focused on the extent to which L2 acquisition was the result of L1 transfer or creative construction (construction of unique rules similar to those which children form in the course of acquiring the native language). The presence of errors that mirrored L1 structures was taken as evidence of transfer (interlingual), while those errors similar to those observed in L1 acquisition were indicative of creative construction (intralingual). The study of learner errors showed that although many errors were caused by transferring L1 habits, many more were not. It was found that learners went through stages of acquisition and the nature of errors varied according to their level of development. Error analysis could not show when learners resorted to avoidance and it ignored what learners could do correctly. Slide 38: For teachers of English language learners, it is important to understand the role of errors in second language learning. Error analysis is important because it gives us the opportunity to examine learner errors and determine if errors are a consequence of first language interference or not. Implications for teachers come in planning instruction that addresses patterns in errors made by students experiencing language interference, grouping practices to target the identified errors, and instructional methodologies and strategies for helping learners overcome some of their errors. Slide 39: Errors made by a language learner can give teachers insight as to how much knowledge the learner has in the second language. They are a means of diagnosing progress or lack of progress in second language development. Errors are to be seen as part of a process of second language acquisition not just as the result of imperfect learning. Slide 40: Errors are systematic and will occur until the language learner recognizes them and corrects them. If communication is clear, even when learners produce errors such as â€Å"no want† then the error is in the language structure and not in the learner’s system (interlanguage). Slide 41: Contrastive analysis helps teachers understand potential errors language learners make. This understanding will allow teachers to identify what needs to be learned and what is already in the learner’s system. What needs to be learned will be the focus of instruction and what is already learned will be the knowledge the learner brings to the learning situations. The pedagogical materials that resulted from contrastive analysis were based on the claim that language is a habit; language learning involves the establishment of a new set of habits; the native language interferes with the reception and production of a second language; and accounting for errors involves considering differences between the first and the second languages. The greater the differences the more errors will occur; and difficulty and ease in learning a second language are determined by differences and similarities between the two languages in contrast. Slide 42: Thomas and Collier (1997), proposed the Prism Model of Language Acquisition for School. This model includes first and second language cognitive development, academic development, language development as well as social and cultural processes. Slide 43: The cognitive development component is a subconscious process that is developmental. Thought processes are built through interactions. It is critical that cognitive development take place in the first language so that the foundation is strong and positive transfer of skills and concepts occurs. Slide 44: Academic knowledge, concepts and skills transfer from the first to the second language. In order to make the necessary instructional adjustments, teachers need to provide instruction in the learners’ first language and a strong English as a Second Language component during the instructional day in order to make academic content meaningful. The interruption of academic development in the first language will likely promote academic failure. A good balance of academic instruction (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency) in the first language and vocabulary and oral language development (Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills) through ESL will facilitate language transfer and transition when the learner is ready. According to research, it takes a language learner from 5-7 years to reach academic proficiency in the second language. It takes from 2-3 years to acquire BICS. Therefore, teaching BICS in the two languages and having a strong ESL program are essential if language learners are to be ready for transitioning from the first to the second language. Slide 45: Language development includes Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) which are acquired subconsciously as well as the innate ability learners bring with them to the academic setting (CALP). In order to assure both cognitive and academic success in learning a second language, the learner must be taught in his/her first language to a high cognitive level so that the learner can develop the necessary competence and performance in the second language. Slide 46: Second language learners go through everyday experiences which impact the acquisition of the second language. The home-school connection is very important in order to help language learners respond to second language learning more effectively. The sociocultural support that language learners need must be evident at home, at school, in the community and in society at large. The instructional environment can either create social unity, linguistic and ethnic respect, and value for bilingualism or it may promote a psychological distance between two groups, cultures and languages. Slide 47: In conclusion, teachers working with second language learners must consider the learners’ linguistic, cultural, and academic needs, as well as the levels of language proficiency. Teachers should encourage their students to experiment with language and not be afraid of making errors. Errors are part of the learning process just as error correction is part of the teaching process. Teachers should not ignore errors, but focusing too much on them can cause anxiety, fear and hamper learning.

Life Is a Tale of Magic free essay sample

Life is like a tale, it does not matter how long it is, it matters how good it is! Good morning respected Dignitaries amp; my dear friends. These words were famously said by the author of one of the world’s most famous book series, JK Rowling. Joanne Kathleen Rowling was born on the 31st of July at Yate England. Born to Peter and Anne Rowling, she had a fixed ambition from a very young age, to write. JK Rowling was on a train trip when an idea of a young boy attending a wizarding school came to her mind. Harry Potter  is now a global brand worth an estimated $15  billion,  and the last four  Harry Potter  books have consecutively set records as the fastest-selling books in history. The series  have been translated, in whole or in part, into 65 languages. The  Harry Potter  books have also gained recognition for sparking an interest in reading among the young at a time when children were thought to be abandoning books for computers and television. We will write a custom essay sample on Life Is a Tale of Magic or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Every human has a spark in them but it needs to be lit by someone. My seed of fire was definitely lit By JK Rowling. In her Harvard speech of 2008 she quoted â€Å"Failure meant a stripping away of the inessential. I stopped pretending to myself that I was anything other than what I was, and began to direct all my energy to finishing the only work that mattered to me. Had I really succeeded at anything else, I might never have found the determination to succeed in the one area where I truly belonged. I was set free, because my greatest fear had been realized, and I was still alive, and I still had a daughter whom I adored, and I had an old typewriter, and a big idea. And so rock bottom became a solid foundation on which I rebuilt my life. † J. K Rowling opened the eyes of many young readers, including myself. She showed the world how momentous well-chosen words can be, and has inspired me, a hopeful writer, to keep on being hopeful. I believe J. K Rowling is the embodiment of hope; a lit candle in the darkness. She proved what the power of determination can do, and at the same time, led me to understand the magic of literature. In fact, Joanne was a turning point for many; her books opened up that universe of print, where one can immerse themselves in worlds so unlike their own and discover the many mysteries unique to it as one explores the delightful details around them. Time seems to stop in its place and allow readers to delve into all there is to know about their surroundings.

Drug Abuse and Religious Spirituality Concept

Drug Abuse and Religious Spirituality Concept Thesis Statement: Adding the concept of religious spirituality to drug abuse treatment programs can help to decrease the amount of relapses by patients.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Drug Abuse and Religious Spirituality Concept specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Introduction In his examination of the effectiveness of current drug abuse treatment programs, Olmstead et al. (2012) noted that the rate of relapses among patients was quite high, often reaching 50% or more in some instances. Particularly, this high rate of relapses was determined by Olmstead et al. (2012) as a direct result of a degree of failure on the part of drug abuse treatment programs to sufficiently address the primary reason why people turn to drugs and the lack of a sufficient method of relapse prevention once patients leave the program. Reason for Failure This failure to add some form of effective preventive method for relapse has been n oted by various researchers to occur due to the fact that even the classification of external preventive programs has very little influence to ensure a sufficiently effective preventive capacity when the origin of the problem is the internal decision making process of patients. Pearson et al. (2012) note that it is often the case that patients need to develop their own internal realization backed by psychological reasoning when it comes to abstaining from drug use. What is necessary is the development of sufficiently strong internal reasoning mechanism and support system to ensure that the factors causing a particular individual to use drugs in the first place do not manifest. Religious Spirituality as a Possible Solution One possible method that has gained a considerable degree of progress in a variety of drug abuse treatment programs is the use of religious spirituality.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More It was determined in the article â€Å"Patients consider spirituality and self-help approaches vital in TC† that religious spirituality can not only aid in the process of drug abuse rehabilitation but even act as a preventive measure to ensure that relapses do not occur (Dermatis, Guschwan, Galanter, Blun 2004). The reason behind its effectiveness is quite simple, religious spirituality acts as a means of altering individuals perception in such a way that people view their life as not just their own but rather as the one connected to an almighty external creator (i.e. God). Moreover, spirituality, in certain cases involving religious groups and organizations, helps instill a sense of belonging on patients within a religious community they are involved in, often acting as a support to prevent drug related relapses (Dermatis, Guschwan, Galanter, Blun, 2004). What you have to understand is that a great number of current drug abuse cases are often related to such feelings experienced by individuals as depression, worthlessness, and. Such behavioral symptoms are often correlated with a lack of sufficient support and social interaction which makes the use of drugs to seem ideal to act as a form of escape from such situations. By adding religious spirituality to drug abuse treatment programs, this creates the initial foundation due to which addicts could find an alternative to drugs abusing by immersing themselves in the feeling of being a part of community and belonging to a greater unit. Such a solution would prevent the potential for patients to relapse since it addresses the internal psychological state in order to ensure that patients develop their own realization regarding the ill effects of drug use (Pearson et al. 2012).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Drug Abuse and Religious Spirituality Concept specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More As s uch, this paper has the assumption that adding the concept of religious spirituality to drug abuse treatment programs can help decrease the amount of relapses by patients. References Dermatis, H. Guschwan, M.T. Galanter, M. Blun, G. (2004). Patients consider spirituality and self-help approaches vital in TCs. DATA: The Brown University Digest of Addiction Theory Application, 23(7), 1-7. Web. Olmstead, T. A., Abraham, A. J., Martino, S., Roman, P. M. (2012). Counselor training in several evidence-based psychosocial addiction treatments in private US substance abuse treatment centers. Drug Alcohol Dependence, 120(1-3), 149-154. Pearson, F. S., Prendergast, M. L., Podus, D., Vazan, P., Greenwell, L., Hamilton, Z. (2012). Meta-analyses of seven of the National Institute on Drug Abuses principles of drug addiction treatment. Journal Of Substance Abuse Treatment, 43(1), 1-11.

How to Become a Teacher Expert Career Guide

How to Become a Teacher Expert Career Guide SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips What's more exciting than educating a new generation of students? If you're interested in becoming a teacher and want some information about how to succeed in this profession, you're in the right place. Here, I'll walk you through how to become a teacher, explaining the steps you need to take in high school, college, and beyond. First, though, I'll touch briefly on the occupational outlook for teachers in the US- this way, you'll be informed about projected job availability and income levels before jumping in. For the sake of this article, I'm going to focus on K-12 teachers (you can, of course, teach at the college/university level, but that involves a pretty different career path). The steps you'd take to succeed in teaching vary slightly based on which academic grades you're interested in working with. From here on out, I'll be differentiating between elementary, middle, and high school teachers where there might be different steps necessary for success. Occupational Outlook for Teachers Before you jump into any career path, it's important to think ahead about more practical things, like expected income and job availability. The US Bureau of Labor Statistics lists important info on pay, necessary education, and job outlook for almost any profession you can think of. High pay and an increase in available positions generally bodes well for people hoping to enter a certain field. Here are these all-important stats for K-12 teachers in the US: Kindergarten and Elementary School Teachers 2014 Median Pay: $53,760 Typical Entry-Level Education (the bare minimum you'd need to enter the field): Bachelor's degree Job Outlook, 2014-2024 (the estimated job growth rate- bigger is better): 6%, which is about average Middle School Teachers 2014 Median Pay: $54,940 Typical Entry-Level Education: Bachelor's degree Job Outlook, 2014-2024: 6%, which is about average High School Teachers 2014 Median Pay: $56,310 Typical Entry-Level Education: Bachelor's degree Job Outlook, 2014-2024: 6%, which is about average How to Become a Teacher: Career Steps Overview To become a teacher, there are a few important things you'll need (I'll go into more detail on these steps and more in the following sections): A high school diploma A bachelor's degree A graduate degree (depending on your preferred career track and the teaching requirements in your area- it's often not required) Your teaching certification/license (requirements will vary based on the state) If you plan ahead, it's possible to start your teaching career very soon after graduating from college. Now that you have a sense of what you'll need to become a teacher, I'll go into the details of what you should do at each stage of the game- starting with high school. Setting Yourself Up for Success: 4 Steps to Take in High School You don't have to make a final decision about a teaching career in high school, but there are some important things you can do to put yourself on the right path. Decide If Teaching Is the Right Fit High school is a good time to start thinking about whether you'd be comfortable with the day-to-day realities and responsibilities of teaching. At all grade levels, teaching involves these important core responsibilities: Preparing lessons Grading assignments and tests Getting kids to behave and participate in class Filling out report cards and assessments Meeting with parents On a personal level, good teachers tend to be: Good at communicating- The crux of your job as an instructor is getting the class to understand new, sometimes challenging, material. Patient- You'll have to deal with students who have trouble learning, behaving, or both. Compassionate- Students (of all ages) aren't always easy to deal with. It will be important for you to be sensitive to challenges they may be dealing with. Creative- You may have to come up with some unorthodox ways of keeping students engaged and learning. Hard-working- Your work as a teacher won't end with the bell. You'll have to come up with lesson plans and tasks, meet with students, parents, and administrators, and grade a ton of assignments. So how do you figure out whether you'd be okay with the responsibilities of working as a teacher? And how do you know whether you have the core characteristics that make a successful instructor? Here are some steps you can take to determine whether teaching may be a good fit: Interviews- Talk with your own instructors about their experiences. Why did they become a teacher? What do they like about their job? What don't they like so much? Shadowing and Observation- Start actively paying attention not only to what your instructors teach, but how they teach it. Are there any teaching methods that you really like? What about methods that aren't as effective? You might also look into opportunities to shadow instructors, especially those teaching in younger classrooms. Tutoring- This is a bit different than teaching a classroom full of students, but teachers still work with students one-on-one. There might be peer-tutoring services offered through your school, or you might look for a job through some other tutoring service. You can start getting teaching experience even in high school. Focus on Your High School Education A strong education in high school will serve as the foundation for your education as a teacher. Elementary school teachers in particular need to be well-rounded as they are responsible for covering all subjects with their students. A high GPA and strong ACT/SAT scores will also make you a more attractive candidate to strong teaching degree programs, which brings me to the next step ... Start Researching Degree Programs If you've decided to pursue a degree in teaching, by the time you start submitting college applications you'll want to apply to appropriate teaching programs. First, you only want to look into accredited programs. Access this complete list of all accredited teaching programs for reference. Second, consider whether you're ready to commit to a particular specialty (e.g. elementary, middle school, or high school education). These specialties will often have different degree requirements- if you already know what you're interested in, you can focus specifically on those degree requirements when you look at schools. Submit Strong College Applications If you end up at a school with a strong teaching program, the next steps you'll have to take to become a teacher will be that much easier. Start by checking out the top-ranked elementary and secondary teaching programs in the US (make sure you're only looking at undergraduate rankings- you don't need a graduate program just yet). You won't necessarily need a degree in teaching- I'll talk more about this in the next section- but if you're sure at this point that teaching is for you, a targeted program might prepare you more effectively for your career. Early decision applications are usually due October-November of your senior year, whereas regular decision apps are due late December-early January. Learn more about how to apply for college and when to apply here. Exploring Education: 4 Steps to Take in College College is where you have to start making big decisions about your teaching career. The good news is that you'll have support along the way, especially if you've decided to attend a program that's targeted towards aspiring teachers. Here's what you should do in college to succeed as a teacher: Know Your State's Teaching Requirements Every state has different rules in place regarding exactly what qualifications you need in order to teach. If you're licensed as a teacher in one state, it's usually possible to become licensed in another, but it's not always easy. As you enter your degree program, you should figure out the licensing requirements for the state you're currently living in AND any states you anticipate moving to in the near future. This way, you'll avoid any unpleasant surprises- you'll also be able to make sure you take any and all required courses or practicums. Take advantage of your program's resources to make sure you meet all necessary requirements. First, the program itself should have requirements built in that will prepare you to meet state requirements. Second, career centers and academic advisors can put you on the right track if you're worried about being prepared for a teaching career after graduation. Knowing these teaching requirements at the beginning of your program will help you make sure you don't miss any important steps. Commit to a Specialty Once you've committed to a college, one of your next big decisions will be committing to a specialty. You'll have to fulfill different degree requirements depending on your specific educational path- the type of teaching you hope to pursue will dictate what sort of specialty you'll choose. Here are the major teaching programs types to choose from: Early Childhood Education Pre-K through 3rd grade Focus mostly on teaching techniques, curriculum, and lesson planning College major is usually in education Elementary Education Primary grades (pre-K through 6th or 8th grade) Focus mostly on teaching techniques, curriculum, and lesson planning College major is usually in education Secondary Education 6th or 8th grade through 12th grade Usually requires you to choose a more specific specialty/content area (e.g. English, Math, History) Teaching techniques, curriculum, and lesson planning are included in the course of study in addition to the chosen content area specialty Specialty Degrees Focus on one specific, specialty area (e.g. fine arts, performing arts, physical education) Other degree options that can be combined with an education degree include special ed and gifted ed Requirements will vary based on the chosen specialty You might major in the subject you hope to teach (e.g. English, Math) and supplement your curriculum with courses in education Administration Education for leadership within the education system Usually requires undergraduate (BA) AND graduate (MA, PhD) education Programs tend to focus on school structure, curriculum, organization, and leadership Gain Real-World Experience This is especially important for students who may not be in a dedicated teaching program (e.g. students who want to teach secondary education and are majoring in something other than education). Real-world teaching experience will help you get more comfortable with leading a classroom so that you can hit the ground running when you start your teaching career. Here are some ways to gain experience, whether you're in a dedicated teaching program or not: School visits- Observing how teachers work at local schools is a great way to experience a day in the life as a teacher. You may want to check out different grade levels to see if you have any preferences. Working as a teacher's assistant- There are many teachers out there who would love some extra help! This is definitely more hands-on than just observing a classroom. Tutoring- Teachers don't just lead entire classrooms- they also work one-on-one with students who want extra help. Tutoring kids of different ages (and even in different subjects) may help you figure out what you like and what you don't. Volunteer mentorship- This is pretty different from traditional teaching experiences, but volunteering to serve as a mentor for a child or teen may help you develop important leadership skills. Running an after-school program- Wrangling a group of kids to get them to participate in an organized activity? Not so different from running a classroom. Bonus: after-school activities can be pretty fun- you could help put on a play, coach intramural sports, or lead a club. Complete Your Education With Student Teaching Student teaching is where you start to implement everything you've learned thus far in a real classroom. It's an important part of any college teaching program. Student teaching will work differently based on your college, your teaching specialty, your student-teaching school, and the classroom you work in. Some student teachers may be expected to take over all classroom responsibilities at multiple grade levels fairly quickly, whereas others may only take a few core responsibilities at one grade level. If you have questions about what student teaching usually entails, you should speak with administrators at your specific program. In general, though, here's what to expect: Student teaching usually lasts for about a semester. You'll be matched with a particular classroom and teacher, usually at a school that has some sort of partnership with your bachelor's program. Most student teachers start off by observing the classroom (this lasts between a few days or a few weeks) before gradually taking over all teaching responsibilities. You should expect to be in the student-teaching classroom all day, every day. Although you may just be observing at first, you'll be learning to build and teach lessons, meet with students, and administer and grade assignments- by the end of the semester, you should ideally feel comfortable leading a classroom on your own. Requirements may be different for those pursuing early childhood, elementary, and secondary education. Each teaching program will have their own protocols- again, it's best to explore any specific questions you have about your own program (or potential programs, if you're still looking at different schools). Final Steps: Teaching Certification Getting certified in the state where you hope to teach is necessary if you want to work at a public school. If you're considering private schools, you may not have to get certified, but it's still recommended (you have a lot more flexibility when it comes to jobs that you qualify for). Here's how you get certified to teach at any school: Pick a State Each state has its own requirements for licensing and certifying teachers. If you want to teach in the same state where you went to college, you'll probably already be familiar with these reqs. If you hope to teach in a different state, you'll have more research to do (it's helpful to do this while you're still in school, like I mentioned earlier, so that you can meet all course requirements ahead of time). Just Google "[state name] teaching certification." Any link that leads to the state's Department of Education is helpful. One thing to keep in mind: some states pay teachers better than others on average. If you're not rooted to one place, and money is a concern, you may want to learn more. Register for Exams (If Necessary) Some states require educators to take licensing exams to prove that they would be competent teachers. Whether these exams are required, how often they're given, and what's actually tested will vary widely by state. It's best to give yourself plenty of time (6 months or more) to register and prepare for these tests. Your teaching program will help prepare you for any necessary certification exams. Apply for Certification Once you've met all state requirements, you can go ahead and apply for certification in the state you hope to work. You'll want to do this several months before you hope to start your job search (you don't want to be delayed in case there are any issues with your application, so starting while you're still in college is a good idea). This process might be easier if you're already certified in another state. Graduate School and Beyond Some states require teachers (at public schools, at least) to earn a Master's degree in order to qualify for certification. Other states encourage, but do not require, a graduate degree. If you're unsure about the requirements for the state you hope to work in, learn more about individual state certification requirements. Whether you end up getting a graduate degree will also depend on your chosen career path- for example, teachers who hope to work in administration will likely need a Master's or PhD. Having a graduate degree- even if it's not required- may lead to more job opportunities and a higher salary. If you're interested in graduate programs, check out the top-ranked education programs in the US. Even if you're certified in a state, you may have to keep up with certification renewals or continuing education requirements- staying on top of this stuff is important when it comes to keeping your license! How to Become a Teacher: 8-Step Summary There are quite a few steps involved in becoming a teacher, but here are the main ones you should remember: Decide if teaching is the right fit Focus on doing well in high school Research teaching degree programs Submit strong college applications Become familiar with your state's teaching requirements Choose a specialty Get real world experience Get certified, and keep your certification by staying on top of requirements What's Next? As you've read above, one of the best ways to prepare for a career in teaching is making sure you get into a great undergraduate program. To get into your top choice colleges, make sure you keep your GPA high. Focusing on extracurricular activities, especially community service work, is also important for applications to teaching programs. Finally, work on getting great SAT or ACT scores. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points? We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Strategic Management analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Strategic Management analysis - Essay Example However, since the use of petroleum products began, the adoption of other forms of fuel process has been slow. With the coming of companies like Better Place, the use of electricity to replace oil has been taking root. This company is motivated by the fact that the rise use of Electric Vehicle is slow, despite the fact that these vehicles are environmental friendly. The company has its own mission and vision that refine its focus in the automotive industry. The company’s mission is to first reduce and later eventually eliminate the use and dependence of oil in automobile industry. This mission defines the company’s focus and what it does differently to create value. This is a global company captivated to creating the world a better place. It works with stakeholders in automobile industry to enhance the spread of EVs. 1.2. Vision The company’s vision is to integrate car companies with the other companies like the battery and utilities companies, and consumers in a way that will enhance an increase in the use of EVs. This vision shows the belief of the company that the only way consumers can adopt EVs in a massive way is by overcoming the main challenge behind the use of EVs, which is its mobility. This belief differentiates the company from other value creators who believed that the massive adoption of EVs will be possible only when the battery capacity is increased. This increase will help cars travel over a hundred miles that are currently possible. Therefore, the company believes that it can achieve the generating of EVs by re-engineering cars and not batteries. This is possible by working on the available technologies and involving the relevant profiles in the automobile industries (Rothaermel 2013). 1.3. Stakeholders The table below maps the stakeholders in Better Place Company Stakeholder Claims and Interests Class Investors Transport project that would have higher returns, receive positive image, and innovative. Key player Government Developing a sustainable transport system Key player Auto Manufacturers developing a sustainable transport system Key player Regulatory Bodies Receive information and regulate organization behavior Keep Satisfied Technical specialists Specify the required technologies to meet the company’s requirements Key player Customers Make successful transitions Key player Program manager Budgeting Keep Informed The government and auto manufacturers are in support of a sustainable transport system. Their failure to acknowledge EVs in some instances is a threat. Customers desire to be relieved from the high cost of oil opt for EVs. The company is interested in reducing pollution and consumption of oil. The project is vital in reducing the increasing economic costs that come with high dependency of oil in different industries including transport. To effectively address the concerns of stakeholders, the company needs to integrate the working of different stakeholders to share ideas (Abernat hy, J and Utterback 1975). In addition, customers need to be educated on the significance of EVs. Finally, the company will work to show admirable results in short period to attract more investors. 2. Industry Analysis and Scenarios 2.1. Industry Analysis Better place has can establish its strategy beyond the suppliers bargaining power. The company has numerous suppliers located in different countries who can give vehicle products and other services. In addition, the customers are located in different countries like Australia and United States of America. The main substitute for EVs is the oil. This product has received numerous criticisms regarding its emission on the environment. In a nutshell, suppliers are forced to embrace new initiatives that are environmental friendly (Thompson et al.

Declining Lease Lengths in Commercial Properties Literature review

Declining Lease Lengths in Commercial Properties - Literature review Example Researchers have not dwelt on the length of the lease except the reducing average lease lengths in the UK. A term structure of rental rates has been responsible for various lengths of the leases but it has been lacking in market reviews. A market review provides valuable knowledge into the relationship between rent and lease length, creating a balanced rent, depending on rent projections (Rowland, 2002). A lease length may depend on specific landlord needs such as redevelopment in the near future or for creating more space for another business tenant. Normally, landlords’ interests are served through long leases while tenants desire short leases with alternatives of renewal (Rowland, 2000). The possibility of such factors as cost of shifting and the cost of reletting could be crucial in deciding rents and lease lengths. Reletting costs may be borne by either the landlord, if the short lease expires or the tenant shifting premises before the expiry of the lease. These costs may not be transferable but can be reduced with mutual consent between the landlord and the tenant (Rowland, 2000). In a term lease there is no boost to reduce depreciation of the property, thus not securing the salvage value of the property (Miller and Upton 1976, p.766; and Flath 1980, p.253)). Smith and Wakeman (1985, p.903)) discuss how lease provisions may change the incentives for both parties, quoting the use of service leases (in which the lesser provides the maintenance) as a solution of avoiding the lessee’s inclination to ignore the property (Rowland, 2002). The deficiency of interest among tenants to take care of the property has been used randomly in the housing economics literature to state tenure choice (Henderson and Ioannides 1983, p.98)) and the observed reduced rents on lease renewal than new lettings (Hubert 1995, p.631)). Kanemoto (1990, p.7)) thinks that the problem comes in substantiating to a third party (typically a court) that the tenant has misused the property. Various types of contracts for maintenance of property change the possibility of not-suitable standards of maintenance (Rowland, 2002). Benjamin, de la Torre, and Musumeci (1995, p.179)) present a model of under-maintenance by tenants, which compares the current values of owning and leasing property. The difference between the maintenance of property by owner-occupiers and by tenants shows the overexploitation by tenants during the lease, with bad outcomes for the residual value. The authors state different methods to improve upon the leases to reduce or eradicate the effects of the tenant’s provocation to misuse the property, like entering into contracts for maintenance by the owner, providing the tenant an alternative to purchase, deposit security or adjusting the rent as per usage needs (Benjamin, de la Torre and Musumeci 1995, p.184)) (Rowland, 2002). Interestingly, in Northern Ireland, the private investors prefer long lease terms on properties situated in pop ulous locations and depending on the area let properties on strong terms in the agreement (Crosby et al., 2002)). The property market was on the boom during 2002 in Northern Ireland, resulting in easy finance due to reduced interest rates realizing greater syndicate transactions related to the property. These inward investment initiatives like call centers for leading companies, including Halifax, Abbey National and Prudential and software development companies like Northbrook Technology and Fujitsu (Hamilton et al., 2005).

I Am Making a Difference in My Community Essay -- Community Service, S

â€Å"Everybody can be great...because anybody can serve. You don't have to have a college degree to serve. You only need a heart full of grace. A soul motivated by love.† ― Martin Luther King Jr. Taking time to volunteer at the many nonprofit organizations, homeless shelters, advocacy centers, philanthropic fundraisers, local schools and child care facilities in the inner city is not always at the forefront of young people’s minds while navigating through their college experiences. But, with a little push from student organizations, local nonprofits and passionate individuals, volunteerism and community change can start to take a front seat and become not just an opportunity, but also a priority in the lives of young people. Volunteerism, civic engagement and advocacy are the driving forces for creating change and making a positive impact in your community and society at large. While gaining internship and job experience can lead to community impact and social change, it’s important for us to remember that before we start advocating for change and informing others about issues we care about, we need to fully understand the complexity and depth of the social, environmental, or economic issue we are passionate about. Not only do we need to understand the ‘issue’ or ‘societal problem’ that many people face and are impacted by every day, but we need to meet and work alongside those whose daily realities are shaped by injustices, while not creating any divides or barriers in the process. Everyday people are affected by the issues that organizations fight for or against, and once we realize how people-centered things like advocacy, outreach and service are, I believe young people will realize their call to action and their potent... ...ocal nonprofit organizations have the potential to amplify their outreach to colleges, and young people in general, through matching passions with skills. You as organizations need to purposefully identify for us why promoting service and civic engagement is not only important, but necessary if we want to improve our lives, the lives of others, and the dilemmas and misfortunes our world faces every day. The relationship between young people and nonprofits can be the start of a significant change in our community, and should be a reciprocal and powerful educational experience. An open-minded and encouraging flow of communication between organizations and community members can be the launchpad for the social and environmental change organizations talk about and try for every day. Together, we can make change – not just a semblance of idealism, but reality, as well.